Folding Screens (Byobu)
The Tale of Genji

Japanese paintings have passed through many different stages and developments. Starting from Ancient Japan and Asuka period which was until 710, developing into many forms and styles to reach the present Postwar period. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_painting) One of the most known forms of painting in Japan was the mural painting, which goes back to the earliest cave drawings. In the eight-century mural paintings started reaching its present form. (http://library.thinkquest.org/27458/nf/paintings/murals.html) Japanese paintings included painted hand scrolls, fans, albums, folding screens and movable panels. The most popular form among these paintings also being introduced by muralists, was the folding screen paintings.

Folding screens in Japan were called Byobu, which means “to block or stop the wind”. That was in fact one of its uses in the Japanese homes, to block wind that usually came through the narrow openings of sometimes the sliding doors. (Katz, 2009, p.14) Byobu was introduced to Japan during the eighth century by China. It was influenced by the Chinese folding screens’ patterns. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byōbu) It was just an influence and Japanese artists did not copy the Chinese style. We can notice the Japanese unique taste and style on each of their folding screens. Byobu can be classified according to its panels’ number. A single-panel screen was called Tsuitate, Two-panel screen was called Nikyoku byobu which was first introduced in the Muromachi Period (1333-1573). Four-panel screen, Yonkyoku byobu and the most common was the six-panel screen, Rokkyoku byobu. Ten-panel screen is slightly recent which is called Jūkyoku byobu. (http://www.finance.reachinformation.com/Byōbu.aspx) Some screens had each panel designed individually and some had a continuous story throughout the divisions of the screen. Its standard height was the height of an average person. Its weight is light compared to its size, which makes it easy to move inside or outside the house and can be folded to the width of one panel. It can serve as a partition or as a background outside the house at a gathering. (Katz, 2009, p.13) It can be considered as a wall, but instead of restricting people, screens are movable and free to control.(Gill, 2004, p.539)

Byobu included many themes and were used in many different occasions. Screens were placed in front of the brazier in a Japanese tea ceremony. Some included waka poetry written on them to celebrate longevity. Screens were also used in Edo Period in wedding ceremonies and newborn babies’ rooms, being painted by ink on white silk surfaces. High screens were also used in bedrooms to preserve privacy. (http://www.finance.reachinformation.com/Byōbu.aspx)

Byobu passed through different Japanese eras; each had its own characteristics and developments. In the Nara Period (646-794) originally it was a single standing panel, then the six-panel byobu became the most common. They were covered with silk and connected with silk cords. Each panel was bound with a wood frame. Next was the Heian Period (794-1185) where panels by then were not connected by silk cords but by coin-shaped metal hinges. Folding screens became more popular in the Muromachi Period (1333-1573), and they were found in many residences and shops. Techniques were used to make depictions in the panels continuous throughout the screen with no vertical borders interruptions. This allowed artists to paint natural scenes and large-format landscapes throughout the panels based on Yamato-e painting. (Stanley-Baker, 1984, p.146)

Fig. 1 The Four Accomplishments, Muromachi period, Kano Motonobu (Japanese, 1476–1559) Pair of six-panel screens; ink and color on paper (170.2 x 381 cm) (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1991.480.1,.2)

In the Azuchi-Momovama Period (1573-1600) and early Edo Period (1600-1868) byobu’s popularity was growing more and highly colorful daily life natural scenes were depicted. (http://www.finance.reachinformation.com/Byōbu.aspx) Byobu’s subjects in general mostly included landscapes, birds, flowers, trees, calligraphy and tale’s scenes.

One of the most famous folding screen’s subjects was depicting scenes from a tale’s chapters. An example is The Tale of Genji, where many artists depicted its chapters in folding screens through different eras.

The Tale of Genji was written by Murasaki Shikibu (c. 973-1014) beginning in 1002 or 1003. As she was an attendant at the imperial court of Japan, Murasaki’s story is based on her personal experiences observing her fellow courtiers, their behaviors and maybe ceremonies. (Katz, 2009, p.169) It was a story filled with morals, written by a woman to women. (Katz, 2009, p.171)

Fig.2 Kano Chikayasu, Scenes from the Tale of Genji, each 169.5 x 375 cm (Katz, 2009, p.168,169)

A pair of screens painted by the talented artist Kano Chikayasu depicts scenes from the famous Tale of Genji in the mid nineteenth century producing a pair of six-panel screens. He used ink, color, gold, silver and mica on silk. Roofs are absent in these scenes to unfold indoors for the viewer. We can see no expressions on the faces of the figures despite the paradise-like surroundings. Clouds are slightly raised in relief and are distributed throughout the screen.

In the upper screen, at the top left scene, Genji and Murasaki are selecting ladies’ fabrics for the new year robes. The painter concentrated on the golden patterns in the fabrics, which makes the viewer attracted with the outstanding selection. (Katz, 2009, p.168) A folding screen also appears behind Genji that depicts a scene of a Chinese landscape with pavilions.

Fig. 3 Detail (Katz, 2009, p.170)

In both the screens, seasons are depicted in a nice way. In the lower screen all the scenes take place in spring, while in the upper screen there is a combination of summer, autumn and winter features. (Katz, 2009, p.169)

There is a celebratory mood that fills the lower screen, where a celebration is depicted at the top left scene, with children dancing with musicians, all performing in front of an audience. This festive tone in the colorful screens and celebrating scene lead to making this work of art a part of special events and ceremonies. (Katz, 2009, p.171)

Each scene in the screen represents moments from a specific chapter. For example the scene with the celebration is from chapter 24 “Butterflies (Kocho)”. All of the scenes are separated from one another by clouds, trees or hills, making the scenes look as if they took place in one continuous landscape throughout the screen. (Katz, 2009, p.169)

Anothe example was a pair of six-panel screens painted in the seventeenth century but by an unknown artist. He used ink, colors and gold on paper. Again here golden clouds fill out the entire screen and separate to reveal scenes of figures from the story. At the far right of the screen, tall, slender, green pine extend to reach nearly the entire height of the screen. In the first three panels at the right of the screen, a newborn Genji is cradled by the nurse with the green robe, and is presented to his father, the Emperor. The Emperor sits on a higher mat with decorative border reserved for royalty. (Katz, 2009, p.100)

Fig. 4 The Tale of Genji, unknown artist, each 166 x 371 cm (book 101)

Although the artist is unknown, but his figural representations with long noses, long faces, horizontally elongated eyes and the lips being slightly parted to reveal a glimpse of teeth, relate to the work style of Kano Eitoku (1543-1590) in his figure painting work based on The Tale of Genji. (Katz, 2009, p.103)

Fig. 5 Scenes from Tale of Genji. Attributed to Kano Eitoku. Pair of six-panel screens, color and gold on paper, each (167.5 x 361.7cm) Momoyama period 16 to 17th century. (http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/e-culture/sannomaru/syuzou-09.html)

The folding screens are very famous and were used a lot at that time and even now, the only difference is in their themes and the reasons behind its uses. For that we can say that it had more importance at that time and was given more significance than it has nowadays. And by the below example you can compare the difference.

Fig. 5 Murakami Takashi (Japanese; born 1962), Cascading, 2003. Six-panel screen; 150 x 273 cm. (Katz, 2009, p.85)

Bibliography

Gill, D. R. (2004). Topsy-turvy 1585. Florida: Paraverse Press.

Katz, J. (2009). Beyond Golden Clouds : Japanese Screens from the Art Institute of Chicago and the Saint Louis Art Museum. Chicago: The Art Institute of Chicago.

Stanley-Baker, J. (1984). Japanese Art. London: Thames & Hudson.

Byobu. (2010). Retrieved December 13, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byōbu

Byobu : Synonyms, Definition & Meaning about Byobu from Reach Information. (2008). Retrieved December 13, 2010, from http://www.finance.reachinformation.com/Byōbu.aspx

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History / The Metropolitan Museum of Art. (2010). Retrieved December 16, 2010, from http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1991.480.1,.2

Japanese painting. (2010). Retrieved December 14, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_painting

Major Collections / Scenes from Tale of Genji. (n.d.). Retrieved December 16, 2010, from http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/e-culture/sannomaru/syuzou-09.html

The art of japan: paintings: murals. (n.d.). Retrieved December 14, 2010, from http://library.thinkquest.org/27458/nf/paintings/murals.html

Pulp Magazines and the Work of Frank R. Paul (2)

Pulp magazines began in the 1890s, peaked popularity in the 1930s in the period of Art Deco and gradually disappeared in the 1905s during the emergence of Pop Art.(Robinson, Davidson, 2001, 2) In the 1930s it became popular because of the need of the people to escape from the misery of the Great Depression by including topics about mystery, adventures and sexuality.(Eskilson, 2007, 276) Most well known publishers for Pulp Magazines were Beadle & Adams and Street & Smith. (Smith, 2000, 19) The name "pulp" came from the low quality and cheap printed papers. However the covers were full of beautiful, brightly colored images and bold design elements, which attracted the attentions of readers to buy them. The magazine was bought for five to twenty five cents, it was seven by ten inches, and it included approximately 130 pages of stories.(Smith, 2000,19) Pulp magazines was an opportunity that provided work for thousands of artists and designers who were able to include realism and expressionism in their artwork.

Among the most famous pulp artists was the Austrian, Frank Rudolph Paul (1884-1963). He began in 1914 working with the Hugo Gernsback.(Ashley, 2000, 32) His work developed designing covers for the 1930s first science fiction magazines, which mainly focused on adventures in the outer space. In 1926 he designed a large number of covers for the Hugo Gernsback Science Fiction Empire. (http://blogs.bgsu.edu/pclnews/?p=10). Using his architectural background and his imagination he successfully became one of the important designers of pulp science fiction covers. An example for his use of architectural elements was the back cover of Quartz City on Mercury from the Amazing Stories in 1941. Where a tower made of hexagons is inhabited by fictional creatures. We can see how the green and red colors are dominant in a creative, attractive way.(Eskilson, 2007, 277) Fig.1 (http://www.frankwu.com/Paul-111.5.html)

A similar one to its architectural elements and composition was the back cover also in 1941 from the Amazing Stories, depicting "Golden City on Titan". He designed also covers for Planet stories, Science Fiction Magazine, Future Fiction and many other stories. Fig. 2 (http://www.frankwu.com/Paul-113.5.html)

From the Science Fiction Magazine is another example of his work. The colors were always bright and catching to the eye especially in the use of the complementary colors red and blue. Where here are two people in space with aliens around them.

Fig. 3 (http://www.frankwu.com/Paul-70.html)

Another example is a cover from the Fantastic Adventures Magazine where he used highly saturated primary colors with heavy outlining. Its strong colors with its composition and characters are shown in an uncommon, unique way.Fig. 4 (http://www.frankwu.com/Paul-105.html)

Other companies had also many other different themes. Culture Productions was a company owned by Harry Donenfeld (1926-1965) and Frank Armer in 1934. It displayed themes of sexual violence were it faced many oppositions and eventually was forced to close. Its stories were named Spicy Mystery. Other well known stories during the 1930s were Adventure, Black Mask, Dime Detective, Flying Aces, Horror Stories, Marvel Tales, Oriental Stories, Spicy Detective, Startling Stories, Thrilling Wonder Stories. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulp_magazine).

Fig. 5 (http://www.vintagelibrary.com/pulpfiction/magazines/SpicyMystery.php)

Bibliography:

Ashley, M. (2000). The Time Machines: The Story of the Science-Fiction Pulp Magazines from the beginning to 1950. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.

Eskilson, S. (2007). Graphic Design A New History. North America: Yale University Press.

Frank R. Paul Gallery. (n.d.). Retrieved April 20, 2010, from http://www.frankwu.com/paul1.html

Robinson, F. and Davidson, L. (2001) Pulp Culture: The Art of Fiction Magazines.

Smith, E. (2000) Hard-Boiled: Working-Class Readers and Pulp Magazines. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

(2010). Pulp magazine. Retrieved April 25, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulp_magazine

(1994). The Lurid and the Alluring: Pulp Magazine Cover Art from the Robert Lesser Collection. Retrieved April 25, 2010, from http://blogs.bgsu.edu/pclnews/?p=10

Pulp Magazines and the Work of Frank R. Paul

Covers were made for pulp magazines during the 1930s in the period of Art Deco and Constructivism. It came as a way to escape from the misery of the Great Depression by including topics about mystery, adventures and sexuality. The name "pulp" came from the low quality and cheap printed papers. It was an apportunity that provided work for thousands of artists and designers who were able to include realism and expressionism in their artwork.

One of the famous designers was the Austrian, Frank R. Paul (1884-1963). He designed covers for the 1930s first science fiction magazines, which mainly focused on adventures in the outer space. Paul started in 1926 with the Hugo Gernsback science fiction empire, designing a large number of covers for them. Using his architectural background and his imagination he successfully became one of the important designers of pulp science fiction covers. An example for his use of architectural elements was the back cover of Quartz City on Mercury from the Amazing Stories. Other companies had also many other different themes. Culture Productions was a company owned by Harry Donenfeld (1926-1965) and Frank Armer in 1934. It displayed themes of sexual violence were it faced many oppositions and eventually was forced to close. Its stories were named Spicy Mystery.

Bibliography:

Eskilson, S. (2007). Graphic Design A New History. North America: Yale University Press.

(2) Art Nouvaeu in Germany: Peter Behrens and the Corporate Type Design

Art Nouveau is French term for "new art" which originated in the late 19th century and early 20th century. It reached its popularity in around 1900, and ended in World War 1. In 1920 Art Deco replaced it. (http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/art-nouveau.htm). Art Nouveau was was spread in many countries. First in France (Paris), reaching America, Australia, Germany and Italy. In Germany it was called Jugendstil (youth style) because of the German magazine "Jugend".
Art Nouveau was used widely with no differentiation, beginning from architecture, fine art, applied art and decorative art. It was used in variety of materials, in interior design, glassware, jewellery, poster design and illustration, painting and sculpture, reaching to ceramics and furniture. (http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/art-nouveau.htm).
Art Nouveau introduced new forms for art which avoided historical traits. It included floral designs including plant forms, curvilinear and sometimes rectilinear designs which was more in Germany, Organic and dynamic forms and in general it was a part of everyday life. (http://katsclass.com/10760/designwk06.htm). No artists had to overlook any everyday object no matter what it is, that is why there where no difference between low cost materials and expensive materials in the work of art. Art Nouveau also emphasized symbolism. Japanese influence was clear on the works of Art Nouveau in the use of whitespace and simple forms.(http://katsclass.com/10760/designwk06.htm)

In 1894 German designers began to come up with new series of magazines. The first magazine Pan was published in Berlin in 1895 to promote the Art Nouveau in Germany. Julius Meier-Graefe (1867-1935) was one of its founders. Pan covered many favourite themes of Art Nouveau during its five years. The second magazine Jugend was published in 1896 by the publisher Georg Hirth (1841-1916). This is from where the term Jugendstil was used.(Eskilson, 2007, 93).


Peter Behrens (1868-1940) a German architect, painter and designer was born in Hamburg, Germany, and was at the forefront of Jugendstil. He studied in Hamburg, the painting at the School of Art in Karlsruhe, Dusseldorf and finally Munich. Behrens along with seven artists was invited by the Grand Duke Ernst Ludwig of Hesse in Darmstadt in 1899 to form an artists' community called Mathildenhohe. From there he became interested in architecture. Behrens there designed all except one of the buildings. (Duncan, 1994, 28)

Posters in Jugendstil mainly developed in Munich. One of the most famous posters for Peter Behrens is the woodcut print The Kiss (1900). It demonstrates his ornamental, curvilinear style, where two profile androgynous figures framed with a dense arabesque of hair.(Eskilson, 2007, 93). Behrens has many other works that include jewellery designs, and glass where he produced a series of table lamps with lustrous shades and bronze or gilt-metal bases. (Gallagher, 2000, 116). Peter Behrens also designed furniture, he designed chairs for the German pavilion at the 1902 Turin Exposition. (Duncan, 1994, 69).

Peter Behrens was able to design his own house within its furnishing from 1900 until 1901 in the Mathildenhohe colony in Darmstadt. This was a great example of him using the concept of Gesamtkunstwerk "total work of art".(http://www.kettererkunst.com/bio/peter-behrens-1868.shtml). Another example was his work at the AEG Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft (General Electricity Company). In 1907 Peter Behrens was appointed by the founder of the company, Emil Rathenau as an artist consultant. He hired Behrens to take the responsibility of designing all the products, architecture and graphic materials in a way that unifies the style of the company. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AEG). AEG then became the first company with complete corporate identity with all its products sharing common design features. That is how Peter Behrens became one of the first industrial designers. (Eskilson, 2007, 93). From that time he began designing their buildings. One of his most noticeable designs for the company was the logo with the three hexagons each containing an initial of the company's name, all inside a large hexagon. It is called the "honeycomb" logotype. (Eskilson, 2007, 93).

In 1899 Behrens first began experimenting with lettering from where he began with a great contribution to German typography. Behrens was convinced that, after architecture, typography "provided the most characteristic image of an age and the strongest evidence of its spiritual progress". (Polano, 2003, 53). Behrens began from his essay, Feste des Lebens und der Kunst (1900) where the text was composed in a sans-serif font, for the first time ever.

Behrens designed four typefaces all produced by the foundry of the Klingspor brothers. The first printed font for him was in 1902 which he called the Behrens-Schrift, it was similar to his neat handwriting. (Polano, 2003, 53). It was kind of between the Latin and Gothic. The second was in 1907, Behrens-Kursiv designed just after his move to Berlin. (Anderson, 2000, 92). For the AEG, Behrens designed a special typeface for its exclusive use in 1908 called Behrens-Antiqua. The last typeface he designed was in 1914, Behrens-Mediaeval. (Polano, 2003, 54).

In general Peter Behrens contributed alot to the Jugenstil, working widely in all its areas. I like the way he went from one area to another, and in every artwork he did, he left his foot prints, wether it is a building, painting, or even a logo. After his work in AEG he became more well known because he designed everything related to the company in a unified way. He made every single thing in the company related to the other, from where he became the first industrial designer.




Bibliography:

AEG - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2010). Retrieved February 21, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AEG

Anderson, S. (2000). Peter Behrens and a New Architecture for the Twentieth Century. America: Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data.

Art Nouveau - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2010). Retrieved January 25, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Nouveau#Germany

Art Nouveau. (n.d.). Retrieved February 19, 2010, from http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/art-nouveau.htm

Design and Cultures 1. (2004). Retrieved February 20, 2010, from
http://katsclass.com/10760/designwk06.htm

Duncan, A. (1994). Art Nouveau. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.

Eskilson, S. (2007). Graphic Design A New History. North America: Yale University Press.

Gallagher, F. (2000). Christie's Art Nouveau. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications.

Peter Behrens. (n.d.). Retrieved February 18, 2010, from http://www.kettererkunst.com/bio/peter-behrens-1868.shtml

Polano, S. (2003). Abc of the 20th century grahics. Milano: Electa Architecture Mondadori Electa spa.